Almost every longevity claim you have read is true of some organism. This page lists every checkable claim in the book In My Lifetime? together with the level of evidence behind it and a link to the source it came from, so you can see which organism it was true of and how far that gets you.
One row per claim. The tag says how far the evidence went, from cells in a dish up to a randomised trial. The link goes to the source itself, not to a summary of it. Under each row is the exact string that has to still be present in that source; a program re-fetched all 113 sources and checked all 113 strings before this edition was assembled, and would have stopped the build if one had gone missing. That means you can audit any row here in about a minute without taking anyone's word for it.
Twelve levels are defined; 11 of them appear in this edition. They run weakest first. Two rules follow, and the book obeys both: weak evidence is never relabelled as strong evidence during retelling, which is the most common way a longevity claim becomes false; and a strong-sounding word does not raise the level, so a trial with nine participants is a small human trial however it is described elsewhere.
| Level | What it means, and what it cannot tell you | Claims |
|---|---|---|
in vitro | Cells or biochemistry in a dish. Mechanism only. Cells in a dish have no immune system, no liver, and no age | 1 |
invertebrate | Yeast, nematodes, fruit flies. Cheap, fast, and where most longevity results are born. Lifespan effects here survive translation to mammals far less often than the volume of publication suggests | 6 |
animal | Mammals, usually mice. The first level where an intact body, an immune system and cancer are all in play. Still an animal with a two-year life and a controlled diet | 28 |
nonhuman primate | Monkeys. Decades per experiment, tiny numbers, enormous cost. Two such studies appear in this book and they disagreed | 5 |
observational | Human cohorts, registries, case-control. Real people, real outcomes, and no randomisation, which means the comparison groups differ in ways nobody measured | 17 |
mendelian randomization | Genetic variants used as natural experiments. Stronger causal footing than a cohort study, weaker than a trial, and only usable where a suitable variant exists | — |
small human trial | Single-arm, open-label, phase I or II, often fewer than thirty people. Tells you whether a thing can be given safely and whether a marker moves. Tells you nothing about whether anyone lives longer | 5 |
rct | Randomised controlled trial. The strongest single study design. In this field they are short, small, and almost never have survival as the endpoint | 7 |
meta analysis | Systematic pooling of trials or cohorts. Only as good as the studies pooled; pooling biased studies produces a precise biased answer | 2 |
mechanistic review | Expert synthesis, no new data. Useful for framing. Not evidence of an effect | 4 |
regulatory | What an agency has actually said or approved. Not a scientific finding, but frequently the thing that decides what happens next | 9 |
descriptive | Money, headcounts, dates, registry records. Facts about the world of research rather than about biology | 29 |
F64in vitro
The activation was an artefact of the fluorescent tag on the test peptide
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “Have Little or No Effect on SIRT1 Deacetylating Activity with Native Full-length Substrates”
Next edition: Re-check for any rehabilitation of direct sirtuin activation.
F19invertebrate
Flies live longer on rapamycin too
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “rapamycin food have increased median life spans”
Next edition: Re-check the fly mechanism work for newer autophagy-dependence results.
F25invertebrate
three Caenorhabditis species whose genetic spread is wider than the gap between mice and people
Source: pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “three Caenorhabditis species representing genetic variability greater than that between mice and humans”
Next edition: Re-read for newer strain panels; the direction-flipping result is the point, not the individual strains.
F63invertebrate
small molecules that appeared to switch on a longevity enzyme
Source: pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “calorie restriction extends lifespan by increasing the activity of Sir2”
Next edition: Re-read the original report alongside the refutation; both stay in the book.
F65invertebrate
the worm and fly results did not survive the removal of background mutations
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “Absence of effects of Sir2 over-expression on lifespan in C. elegans and Drosophila”
Next edition: Re-check for replications in outcrossed strains.
F90invertebrate
constant mortality and constant fertility over the years observed
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “reproduction rates for most individual Hydra (80%; Table 2 ) were constant”
Next edition: Re-check for longer observation periods.
F91invertebrate
declining asexual reproduction is suggestive of senescence
Source: pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “Declining asexual reproduction is suggestive of senescence in hydra”
Next edition: Re-check whether this objection was answered with data.
F02animal
rapamycin extended lifespan while resveratrol and simvastatin, run in the same cohort, did nothing
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “rapamycin at 4 mg/kg body weight by intraperitoneal injection every other day for 6 weeks starting at age 22 months”
Next edition: Check whether resveratrol or simvastatin have since been retested by the ITP at other doses; if so, add the newer result beside this one.
F03animal
the effect grew with dose across the three concentrations tested
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “20-fold lower in rapamycin mice compared with controls”
Next edition: Re-read the dose-response paper; add any later ITP round that tests a fourth dose.
F04animal
acarbose raised male median lifespan by 22 percent and female median lifespan by 5 percent
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “Acarbose increased male median lifespan by 22% ( P < 0.0001), but increased female median lifespan by only 5%”
Next edition: Re-read the acarbose paper and any newer ITP round that repeats acarbose; the sex asymmetry is the part most likely to be revised.
F05animal
Fisetin, a hydrogen sulfide donor, dimethyl fumarate, mycophenolic acid and 4-phenylbutyrate all failed to change lifespan in either sex
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “fisetin, SG1002 (hydrogen sulfide donor), dimethyl fumarate, mycophenolic acid, and 4-phenylbutyrate do not significantly affect lifespan in either sex at the doses and schedules used”
Next edition: Re-read the 2024 ITP round; if any of these compounds is retested at a different dose, report the retest instead of the original null.
F06animal
Astaxanthin added 12 percent to male median lifespan
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “UM-HET3 male mice fed Asta starting at 12 months of age had their median lifespan increased by 12%”
Next edition: Re-read the same paper for any correction to the astaxanthin estimate.
F07animal
alpha-ketoglutarate, started late, did not extend lifespan in the ITP
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “the ITP did not find an increase in lifespan when starting AKG at 18 months of age”
Next edition: Replace with the newest ITP round each edition; this is the fastest-moving row in the book.
F08animal
captopril bought female mice 4 to 5 percent
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “Captopril led to small (4% or 5%) but significant increases in female lifespan”
Next edition: Re-read for the combination arm; the rapamycin-plus-acarbose result is the one to watch.
F10animal
nordihydroguaiaretic acid and aspirin both lengthened male survival
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “We report here that both NDGA (p = 0.0006) and aspirin (p = 0.01) led to a significant increase in survival of male mice.”
Next edition: Check later ITP rounds for repeat tests of aspirin at other doses.
F11animal
an increase of 14 percent for females and 9 percent for males at the ninetieth percentile of survival
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “rapamycin led to an increase of 14% for females and 9% for males”
Next edition: Re-read the 2009 paper; if the ITP publishes a pooled reanalysis of all rapamycin cohorts, cite that instead.
F24animal
the low dose extended life and the ten-fold higher dose was toxic
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “metformin (0.1% w/w in diet) starting at middle age extends healthspan and lifespan in male mice, while a higher dose (1% w/w) was toxic”
Next edition: Check whether the ITP has repeated metformin alone at a third dose.
F36animal
41 recombinant inbred strains
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “41 recombinant inbred (RI) strains of mice”
Next edition: Re-read for larger strain panels; a bigger panel would sharpen the fraction of strains harmed.
F38animal
a genetic switch that kills cells carrying one marker
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “By breeding INK-ATTAC mice into a progeroid mouse genetic background”
Next edition: Re-read for newer genetic clearance models.
F39animal
median lifespan rose by 27 percent in one background and 24 percent in another
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “median lifespans of mixed and C57BL/6 AP-treated animals were increased by 27% and 24%”
Next edition: Re-read for replication in additional genetic backgrounds.
F40animal
raised post-treatment survival by 36 percent
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “increased post-treatment survival by 36% while reducing mortality hazard to 65%”
Next edition: Re-read for replications of the drug-based result, which is weaker evidence than the genetic clearance work.
F46animal
cycled on and off in a mouse engineered to age fast
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “we observed a dramatic increase in median and maximal lifespan in animals subjected to partial in vivo reprogramming”
Next edition: Re-read for reprogramming results in normally ageing rather than progeroid animals.
F47animal
Sight came back in old mice
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “Both Tet1 and Tet2 were also required to improve RGC function and vision in 12-month-old mice”
Next edition: Re-check for independent replication of the vision result outside the originating laboratory.
F48animal
long-term partial reprogramming in normally ageing mice
Source: pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “the effects of longer-term partial reprogramming in physiologically aging wild-type mice are unknown”
Next edition: Re-read for survival data from long-term reprogramming.
F49animal
teratomas emerging from multiple organs
Source: pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “transitory induction of the four factors Oct4, Sox2, Klf4 and c-Myc in mice results in teratomas emerging from multiple organs”
Next edition: Re-check for newer safety data from targeted or partial reprogramming systems.
F50animal
stopping halfway is its own hazard
Source: pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “epigenetic regulation associated with iPSC derivation may drive development of particular types of cancer”
Next edition: Re-read for improved control systems that bound this risk.
F66animal
Taurine was proposed as a driver of ageing
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “Taurine-deficient mice had shorter lives than WT mice”
Next edition: Re-read alongside the 2025 measurement paper; if a third measurement study appears, report all three.
F68animal
a circulating factor that reversed age-related thickening of the heart
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “Circulating Factor that Reverses Age-Related Cardiac Hypertrophy”
Next edition: Re-read alongside the two contradicting papers.
F69animal
the molecule went up with age rather than down
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “there was a nearly significant increase of GDF11”
Next edition: Re-check whether the assay dispute has been resolved.
F70animal
an independent laboratory could not reproduce the cardiac benefit
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “GDF11 Does not Rescue Aging-Related Pathological Hypertrophy”
Next edition: Re-check for a tie-breaking replication.
F71animal
diluting old blood with saline and albumin
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “replacing the platelet-rich-plasma (PRP), fraction with physiological saline”
Next edition: Re-check for replication of the dilution result and for human data.
F86animal
the hazard of dying does not rise with age
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “Mortality-hazard estimates (solid green) with 95% confidence intervals (dotted green) across the observed naked mole-rat lifespan.”
Next edition: Re-check for further demographic updates from the same colony.
F87animal
the same finding held when the dataset was doubled five years later
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “Five years later, with double the demographic data”
Next edition: Re-check for the next demographic update; this row exists because the replication matters more than the original.
F88animal
more than 28.3 years in captivity, roughly nine times a similar-sized mouse
Source: pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “Naked mole-rats live in captivity for more than 28.3 years, approximately 9 times longer than similar-sized mice.”
Next edition: Re-check for a longer observed maximum.
F89animal
two cases of cancer in zoo-housed animals
Source: pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “we report for the first time 2 cases of cancer in zoo-housed NMRs”
Next edition: Re-check for further case reports; the count is the point.
F12nonhuman primate
the marmoset work reports metabolic effects, not a survival curve
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “In rapamycin-treated marmosets, there was a significant increase in food intake at month 5”
Next edition: Check whether the marmoset colony has reported survival data yet; that would upgrade this row from metabolic to lifespan evidence.
F32nonhuman primate
the National Institute on Aging colony found no survival benefit
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “has not produced significant survival effects”
Next edition: Re-check for further follow-up from the NIA colony.
F33nonhuman primate
50 percent of controls were alive against 80 percent of the restricted animals
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “At the time point reported 50% of control fed animals survived compared with 80% survival of CR animals.”
Next edition: Re-read the Wisconsin reports; the survival split is the number most often quoted without its date.
F34nonhuman primate
a hazard ratio of 1.865 for the control animals
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “The hazard ratio (HR) of 1.865”
Next edition: Re-read the joint reanalysis; if a third colony reports, this row needs rewriting rather than updating.
F35nonhuman primate
the twenty-year follow-up reported improved age-related and all-cause survival
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “CR significantly improves age-related and all-cause survival in monkeys on a long-term ~30% restricted diet”
Next edition: Re-check for a longer follow-up from the same colony.
F20observational
People with type 2 diabetes taking metformin outlived matched controls who did not have diabetes at all
Source: pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “Patients with type 2 diabetes initiated with metformin monotherapy had longer survival than did matched, non-diabetic controls.”
Next edition: Check for replications in other national prescribing databases; a failed replication would be the single most useful update to this chapter.
F21observational
reported risk reductions of 31 to 34 percent
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “risk reductions ranged between 31 and 34%”
Next edition: Re-read the bias methodology paper; if a bias-corrected reanalysis of the survival claim appears, cite it here.
F56observational
a predictor built across tissues
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “the proposed multi-tissue predictor of age outperforms predictors described in other articles”
Next edition: Re-read for the clock's current accuracy claims.
F57observational
predicted remaining lifespan better than the smoking history people reported about themselves
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “the surrogate marker is a more significant predictor of lifespan than self-reported pack-years”
Next edition: Re-check for external validation of GrimAge in new cohorts.
F58observational
a rate rather than an age
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “the inclusion of a 4 th timepoint in Pace of Aging analysis should increase precision”
Next edition: Re-read for newer versions of the pace measure.
F59observational
the same blood sample, split and measured twice
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “Reliability of epigenetic age and age acceleration in an independent blood DNAm dataset with 37 pairs of technical replicates”
Next edition: Re-read for improved reliability estimates; this is the number that decides whether clocks can serve as endpoints.
F60observational
the signal shrank once immune cell composition was accounted for
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “before adjusting for immune cell composition”
Next edition: Re-check for deconvolution-corrected versions of published clock results.
F67observational
increased or stayed flat with age in three human cohorts
Source: pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “circulating taurine concentrations increased or remained unchanged with age in three geographically distinct human cohorts”
Next edition: Re-check for further longitudinal measurements; this is a live disagreement, not a settled reversal.
F76observational
a ceiling around 115 years
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “the rate of improvement in survival peaks and then declines for very old age levels”
Next edition: Re-read the original limit paper alongside the rebuttals; do not report one without the others.
F77observational
there might be a limit, but these results are not evidence of one
Source: www.nature.com · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “There might be a limit to human lifespan, but we believe that their results provide no evidence.”
Next edition: Re-check for further exchanges in this dispute.
F78observational
the risk of dying stops climbing
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “Above age 105 human mortality appears constant over age at levels that are slowly declining across cohorts.”
Next edition: Re-check for larger validated cohorts above 105.
F79observational
record-keeping error alone can manufacture the plateau
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “Random error in the allocation of individuals to cohorts and in certified ages at death”
Next edition: Re-check whether age-validated subsets reproduce the plateau.
F80observational
poverty and short average lifespan predicted where the oldest people were found
Source: www.biorxiv.org · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “relative poverty and short lifespan constitute unexpected predictors of centenarian and supercentenarian status”
Next edition: Check whether this preprint has been formally published and cite the version of record.
F82observational
The defenders published their validation methods
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “Sardinia, Italy Blue Zone validation”
Next edition: Re-read the exchange; this dispute is active and both sides are in the book by design.
F83observational
a male to female ratio among centenarians of 1.35 against 2.43 elsewhere on the island
Source: pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “the male to female ratio among centenarians born in this area is 1.35 compared to 2.43 in the rest of Sardinia”
Next edition: Re-check the original AKEA cohort against later age validation.
F84observational
13.9 percent of women and 4.5 percent of men would reach 100
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “the composite highest life expectancy mortality schedules in 2019 yield 13.9% survival to age 100 for females and 4.5% for males”
Next edition: Re-read with updated national life tables each edition.
F85observational
an upper bound of 7 percent
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “Structural equation modeling of (co)siblings-in-law suggested an upper-bound heritability estimate of 7%”
Next edition: Re-check for heritability estimates from newer pedigree datasets.
F41small human trial
fourteen people with pulmonary fibrosis
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “participants with IPF ( n = 14) to evaluate feasibility”
Next edition: Re-check for the phase 2 trial that this pilot was designed to justify.
F42small human trial
nine people with diabetic kidney disease
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “subjects with diabetic kidney disease ( N = 9;”
Next edition: Re-check for a larger diabetic kidney disease trial with a clinical endpoint.
F43small human trial
the Alzheimer's pilot was built around feasibility and biomarkers
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “Our preclinical trial of D+Q reported 35% fewer insoluble NFTs in the treatment arm relative to placebo”
Next edition: Re-check for the peer-reviewed publication and for the follow-on trial.
F73small human trial
nine patients in the open-label arm
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “Of the 9 patients in the open-label plasma cohort”
Next edition: Re-check for larger plasma trials with clinical endpoints.
F74small human trial
The supplement did what it says on the tin at the level of blood chemistry
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “The mean level of NADP + also increased, but did not reach statistical significance”
Next edition: Re-check for trials with functional rather than biochemical endpoints.
F13rct
the endpoint was the antibody response to a flu vaccine
Source: pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “we evaluated whether the mTOR inhibitor RAD001 ameliorated immunosenescence”
Next edition: Look for a replication of the vaccine-response result in a larger trial.
F14rct
264 older adults for six weeks
Source: pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “264 elderly subjects given the study drugs for 6 weeks”
Next edition: Check the fate of the phase 3 programme that followed this trial; a failed confirmatory trial would change how this row reads.
F15rct
the largest randomised trial of rapamycin in healthy adults ran 48 weeks and was powered for safety
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “This 48-week decentralized, double-blinded, randomized, placebo-controlled trial ( NCT04488601 ) evaluated the long-term safety of intermittent low-dose rapamycin”
Next edition: Re-read the PEARL publication and check for the extension study.
F22rct
metformin blunted the mitochondrial adaptation to twelve weeks of aerobic training
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “after 12 weeks of AET was significantly different with placebo vs. metformin”
Next edition: Look for a larger replication; this result rests on a small randomised trial.
F23rct
the same drug blunted muscle growth from resistance training
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “Metformin blunts muscle hypertrophy in response to progressive resistance exercise training in older adults”
Next edition: Check for follow-up analyses of the MASTERS cohort.
F30rct
The protocol asked for a 25 percent cut
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “The target level of 25% CR was selected”
Next edition: Re-read the CALERIE II design paper if the follow-up cohort publishes.
F31rct
The average cut actually achieved was 11.9 percent
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “most participants achieving doses below the prescribed 25% (mean = 11.9, s.e.m. = 0.7%)”
Next edition: Re-read the methylation paper; the achieved-dose number is the one most often dropped when this trial is summarised.
F17meta analysis
The only large body of long-term human data on this drug class comes from transplant medicine
Source: pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “Change in mean maximal intimal thickness was significantly reduced with mTOR”
Next edition: Look for newer meta-analyses of long-term mTOR inhibitor use outside transplantation.
F75meta analysis
The reviews keep arriving at the same verdict
Source: pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “This systematic review provides insights into the potential therapeutic value of NAD+ precursors”
Next edition: Re-read the newest systematic review each edition.
F26mechanistic review
metformin on its own did not extend life in that programme
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “Metformin alone did not increase lifespan, but in combination with rapamycin, a benefit was reported.”
Next edition: Re-read the critical review and note any new human evidence it would have to account for.
F44mechanistic review
senescent cells are not simply debris
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “Clearance of senescent cells enhances skin wound healing in type 2 diabetic mice”
Next edition: Re-read for newer work on the beneficial roles of senescent cells.
F61mechanistic review
what a biomarker has to do before it can stand in for an outcome
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “known factors with systemic negative effects on longevity, such as chronic stress”
Next edition: Re-read the framework paper; a formal regulatory qualification of any clock would replace this row entirely.
F106mechanistic review
twelve hallmarks
Source: pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “We propose the following twelve hallmarks of aging”
Next edition: Re-read the newest revision of the hallmarks framework; the count itself has changed once already.
F72regulatory
no proven clinical benefit
Source: www.fda.gov · official doc · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “There is no proven clinical benefit of the infusion of plasma from young donors”
Next edition: Re-read the FDA statement; withdrawal or revision of it would be a real change.
F95regulatory
ageing associated decline in intrinsic capacity
Source: icdcdn.who.int · official doc · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “Ageing associated decline in intrinsic capacity”
Next edition: Re-read the current ICD-11 release table. A new code for ageing itself would be the largest single change this book could report.
F96regulatory
an extension code that lets a clinician mark something as ageing-related
Source: icdcdn.who.int · official doc · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “XT9T”
Next edition: Re-read the release table for changes to the extension codes.
F97regulatory
an application names a condition to be treated
Source: www.fda.gov · official doc · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “the sponsor must wait 30 calendar days before initiating any clinical trials”
Next edition: Re-read the IND page for procedural changes.
F98regulatory
expanded conditional approval of new animal drugs
Source: www.fda.gov · official doc · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “provisions for expanded conditional approval of new animal drugs”
Next edition: Re-read the guidance; a human analogue of this pathway would change the whole argument.
F99regulatory
a reasonable expectation of effectiveness
Source: www.fda.gov · official doc · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “reasonable expectation of effectiveness”
Next edition: Re-read the explainer for changes to the evidentiary standard.
F100regulatory
terminates automatically after five years
Source: www.fda.gov · official doc · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “The conditional approval automatically terminates five years after the date of the initial conditional approval.”
Next edition: Re-read the explainer; the five-year clock is what makes this pathway a bet rather than an approval.
F103regulatory
20 years from the date the application was filed
Source: www.uspto.gov · official doc · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “ending 20 years from the date on which the application for the patent was filed in the United States”
Next edition: Re-read the statute section if patent term rules change.
F113regulatory
a one-time, single-dose infusion
Source: www.fda.gov · official doc · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “given back as a one-time, single-dose infusion”
Next edition: Re-read the approval announcement and check whether long-term follow-up has changed the one-time framing.
F01descriptive
three laboratories run the same protocol on the same genetically heterogeneous mice
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “The NIA interventions testing program The ITP was developed to test candidate diets, supplements and compounds for their ability to extend lifespan and promote healthy aging in a mouse model.”
Next edition: Re-read the ITP design paper; if the program adds or drops a site, rewrite the description of the three-site design rather than editing the number.
F09descriptive
The survival curves are posted, compound by compound, in the Mouse Phenome Database
Source: phenome.jax.org · official doc · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “MPD identifiers ITP1 MPD: 508”
Next edition: Re-check that the ITP1 project is still published under MPD 508 and note the changelog count.
F16descriptive
You can pull the record yourself and read the endpoints
Source: clinicaltrials.gov · official doc · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “"briefTitle":"Participatory Evaluation (of) Aging (With) Rapamycin (for) Longevity Study"”
Next edition: Re-pull the registry record and report the current overall status and any posted results.
F18descriptive
36 registered studies
Source: clinicaltrials.gov · official doc · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “{"totalCount":36”
Next edition: Re-run the query and report the new count; a jump would be the first sign that human work is scaling.
F27descriptive
a trial designed backwards from a regulatory problem
Source: pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “Targeting Aging with Metformin”
Next edition: Re-read the design paper and compare it with whatever protocol is eventually registered.
F28descriptive
the exact phrase returns a single registered study
Source: clinicaltrials.gov · official doc · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “{"totalCount":1”
Next edition: Re-run this query every edition. The day it returns a registered TAME protocol is the day this chapter changes.
F29descriptive
and that study is a caloric-restriction follow-up at Tufts
Source: clinicaltrials.gov · official doc · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “"briefTitle":"The CALERIE”
Next edition: Re-run the same query; if the single hit changes identity, say what it is now.
F37descriptive
The registry record is public
Source: clinicaltrials.gov · official doc · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “"briefTitle":"CALERIE: Comprehensive Assessment of Long-Term Effects of Reducing Intake of Energy"”
Next edition: Re-run the query and note the status of the legacy follow-up study.
F45descriptive
31 registered studies
Source: clinicaltrials.gov · official doc · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “{"totalCount":31”
Next edition: Re-run the query; watch for the first trial with a clinical rather than a biomarker endpoint.
F51descriptive
Companies describe themselves in the language of disease reversal, not lifespan
Source: www.altoslabs.com · official doc · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “cell rejuvenation to reverse disease, injury and the disabilities that can occur throughout life”
Next edition: Re-read the company sites; a change in how they describe their goal is itself information about the regulatory route they expect to take.
F52descriptive
add healthy years
Source: newlimit.com · official doc · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “NewLimit is inventing medicines to add healthy years to people's lives.”
Next edition: Re-read the site each edition.
F53descriptive
ten years of healthy lifespan as a corporate target
Source: www.retro.bio · official doc · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “Adding 10 Years to Healthy Human Lifespan”
Next edition: Re-read the site; a change of headline target is worth reporting.
F54descriptive
each committed a further 500 million dollars
Source: news.abbvie.com · press release · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “AbbVie and Calico will each commit to contribute an additional $500 million to the collaboration.”
Next edition: Check for a further extension or a wind-down announcement.
F55descriptive
a 101 million dollar prize
Source: www.xprize.org · official doc · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “$101 million global competition”
Next edition: Re-read the prize page and report the current phase and any finalists.
F62descriptive
270 registered studies
Source: clinicaltrials.gov · official doc · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “{"totalCount":270”
Next edition: Re-run the query. The gap between this count and the reliability literature is the whole point of the chapter.
F81descriptive
lousy birth-and-death recordkeeping
Source: improbable.com · official doc · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “for detective work to discover that many of the people famous for having the longest lives lived in places that had lousy birth-and-death recordkeeping”
Next edition: Re-read the prize citation only if the award is contested or withdrawn.
F92descriptive
three registered studies
Source: clinicaltrials.gov · official doc · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “{"totalCount":3”
Next edition: Re-run the query. If a properly sized acarbose ageing trial appears, that is the most consequential update this book can carry.
F93descriptive
The one built to look at longevity was terminated with 28 people enrolled
Source: clinicaltrials.gov · official doc · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “"enrollmentInfo":{"count":28}”
Next edition: Re-run the query and re-read the status of each of the three records.
F94descriptive
the registry returns nothing at all
Source: clinicaltrials.gov · official doc · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “{"totalCount":0,"studies":[”
Next edition: Re-run the exact-phrase query; the quotation marks matter, because without them the search returns unrelated testosterone trials.
F101descriptive
the second of three requirements
Source: loyalfordogs.com · official doc · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “completed the second of three major requirements for FDA conditional approval”
Next edition: Re-read the company site and, when available, the FDA record itself.
F102descriptive
1,317 dogs
Source: loyalfordogs.com · official doc · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “1,317 dogs enrolled in STAY clinical trial”
Next edition: Re-read the enrolment figure; it is a company-reported number, not a registry number.
F104descriptive
a total appropriation of $7.35 billion
Source: www.cancer.gov · official doc · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “provides NCI with a total appropriation of $7.35 billion”
Next edition: Re-read the budget page each edition and update the fiscal year with the number.
F105descriptive
The programme has a public funding record
Source: reporter.nih.gov · official doc · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “NIA Interventions Testing Program”
Next edition: Re-pull the funding record and note the current project period.
F107descriptive
In 1962 a committee in Seattle was handed a stack of medical charts
Source: journalofethics.ama-assn.org · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “In 1962 the Seattle Artificial Kidney Center charged a committee”
Next edition: Re-read the history article; the facts here are settled, but a better primary account would be worth citing.
F108descriptive
the patient's anticipated contribution to society
Source: journalofethics.ama-assn.org · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “an assessment of the patient's anticipated contribution to society, would be the primary criterion”
Next edition: Re-read the account of the selection criteria.
F109descriptive
Congress made dialysis a universal entitlement in 1972
Source: journalofethics.ama-assn.org · paper · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “Congress codified the lifelong subsidization of eligible patients with ESRD in 1972, through Public Law 92-603”
Next edition: Re-read for the legislative history; the ten-year interval is the load-bearing fact.
F110descriptive
about US$ 14 000 per person per year in 1990 to about US$ 1200 by 2003
Source: www.unaids.org · official doc · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “from about US$ 14 000 per person per year for first-line regimens in high-income countries in 1990 to about US$ 1200 per year in low- and middle-income countries in 2003”
Next edition: Re-read the UNAIDS feature and update with the newest price series.
F111descriptive
under US$ 100 a year
Source: www.unaids.org · official doc · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “By 2018, the price per person per year in sub-Saharan Africa was under US$ 100”
Next edition: Re-read for the current price and for any reversal caused by supply shocks.
F112descriptive
a list price of USD 2.125 million for a single infusion
Source: www.novartis.com · press release · retrieved 2026-07-27
Still has to say: “The wholesale acquisition cost of Zolgensma of USD 2.125 million”
Next edition: Re-read for price changes and for the arrival of competing one-time therapies at lower prices.
Every bracketed identifier in the book resolves to a row above, and every row above is cited at least once in the book, so an unused source cannot sit in the appendix making the evidence base look larger than it is. Every sentence carrying a number that looks like a fact carries an identifier, which is the only check that catches a figure written from memory. Every claim's evidence level is printed beside it in the text.
What none of that establishes is that a source is right. A paper can be retrieved, quoted accurately, and still be wrong; one chapter of the book is a catalogue of that happening to careful people. Nor can a program catch a claim that is true, sourced, and misleading in context. The defence against that one is editorial: the contradicting result goes in the same chapter as the result it contradicts.